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Welcome to our new series exploring the rich tapestry of Indian Darshanas (philosophies).
We're kicking things off with Charvaka Darshana, often considered the most appealing of the Nastika philosophies due to its straightforward, sense-based view of life.
Before we dive in, let's clarify a common misconception. In Indian Shastras (scriptures), a Nastika doesn't mean someone who doesn't believe in God. Instead, a Nastika is defined as a person who does not believe in the existence or authenticity of the Vedas and other Shastras. Conversely, an Astika is someone who believes in the Vedas, even if they don't believe in a supreme entity like God, as seen in the Mimamsaka school. Charvaka is one of the main Nastika Darshanas, alongside Bodha (Buddhism) and Jina (Jainism).
It's important to note that unlike many other philosophies, we don't have original texts written by Charvakas themselves. Our understanding of Charvaka philosophy primarily comes from the explanations of other Darshanakaras (philosophers), such as those found in Madhavacharya's "Sarvadarshana Sangraha". Some puranic accounts even suggest that Charvakas might never have existed as a distinct group, but rather the philosophy was propagated to dissuade people from Vedic rituals.
What's in a Name? Charvaka and Lokyayata
The name "Charvaka" is quite telling, with two potential derivations:
Charu (Attractive Speech): This refers to the philosophy's attractive, sweet, and materialistic appeal to the masses. People are naturally drawn to ideas that promote worldly enjoyment.
Charam (One who Chews): This interpretation suggests a person who "chews away" at various Pramanas (sources of knowledge) and objects, particularly by denying the authority of the Vedas and the existence of concepts like space.
This philosophy is also known as Lokyayata. "Loka" means "world," and "Ayata" means "widespread". Thus, Lokyayata means "that which is widespread in this world," reflecting its materialistic nature, which resonates with many people.
Seeing is Believing: The Charvaka's Source of Knowledge (Pramana)
In Indian philosophies, Pramana refers to the source of true knowledge. While many schools accept various Pramanas (like Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, etc.), the Charvaka philosophy is distinct:
Charvaka believes that only Pratyaksha (direct perception through sense organs) is the valid source of right knowledge.
Whatever you learn through your eyes, ears, touch, taste, or smell is considered true knowledge.
They reject Anumana (inference), which is typically accepted by other philosophies. For example, seeing smoke far away and inferring fire. Charvaka argues against inference because it relies on Vyapti, an invariable relationship between two objects (like smoke and fire).
The Charvaka perspective highlights that you cannot have observed every single instance in the world to be absolutely sure of such a relationship. For instance, someone might always see smoke with fire in a forest, but this doesn't mean fire always produces smoke (for example, a gas stove flame has fire without smoke). Therefore, any inference based on incomplete observation is unreliable.
The World is Just Four Elements: Charvaka's Reality (Tatwa)
The Tatwa refers to the objects or substances a philosophy believes exist in reality. Unlike philosophies such as Visishtadvaita, which recognize non-sentient beings, sentient souls (Jivatma), and an omniscient supreme being (Paramatma), Charvaka has a very different view:
Charvaka believes only in Achaitanya (non-sentient beings).
They do not believe in God (Ishwara) or individual souls (Jivatma) because these cannot be perceived through the senses.
According to Charvaka, the entire world is made up of only four basic elements:
Vayu (Air), Agni (Fire), Jala (Water), Prithvi (Soil/Earth)
They reject Akasha (space) as an element because it cannot be perceived by our sense organs.
A crucial aspect of Charvaka Tatwa is their explanation for consciousness:
They argue that consciousness arises when these four elements come together in a specific process, similar to how grape juice becomes alcoholic through fermentation.
Once these elements separate, such as during death, consciousness simply vanishes.
Therefore, for Charvaka, the body itself is the Atma (self). There is no separate soul or concept of rebirth.
Birth is seen as a random event without a specific reason, much like the inherent heat of fire or the metallic nature of metal.
Live for Pleasure: The Charvaka's Goals (Purushartha)
In alignment with their materialistic view of reality, the Charvaka's goals (Purusharthas) are centered on worldly enjoyment:
Traditional Indian philosophies recognize Dharma (righteous conduct), Artha (wealth), Kama (desire/pleasure), and Moksha (liberation) as life's goals.
Charvaka rejects Dharma and Moksha.
They focus solely on Artha (money) and Kama (fulfilling desires), with Kama being the main goal. Artha is merely a means to achieve Kama.
The core motto of Charvaka is often summarized as: "As long as you live, live happily, live joyfully! Take a loan, drink ghee (or enjoy whatever you like), because once this body is gone and turned into ashes, it will not return."
Interestingly, Charvakas are depicted as practical, not foolish:
They understand that actions have consequences.
They advise enjoying life as much as possible, but with a caveat: if taking a loan and not repaying it could lead to prison (which hinders enjoyment), then one should either repay the loan or avoid taking it if not clever enough to escape the consequences. The ultimate aim is always to maximize enjoyment and minimize suffering.
The Path to Pleasure: Charvaka's Means (Hita)
When it comes to the means (Hita) to achieve their goals, Charvakas are equally direct:
Since they don't believe in afterlife consequences, they suggest doing whatever brings sensual pleasure.
They are not bound by traditional ethics or moral rules derived from religious texts.
If they follow societal laws or the constitution, it's not out of a sense of moral duty, but purely out of pragmatism: to avoid being caught by the police, which would hinder their happiness.
They acknowledge that life involves suffering but advocate for being as happy as possible within that suffering.
A Rebellion Against the Vedas
Charvakas were fiercely opposed to the Vedas and those who followed Vedic rituals. Their criticisms were sharp and often satirical:
Critique of Offerings to Devas: They questioned how offerings burned in a fire could reach Devas like Indra. They joked that if Indra eats such things, a cow is better off.
Critique of Ancestral Offerings: They ridiculed the practice of offering food to ancestors in Swargaloka (heaven). They argued that if you can't even send food to someone upstairs in a house without physically moving it, how can you send it to people in another world?
Critique of Animal Sacrifice: They famously challenged Vedic proponents about sacrificed goats going to Swarga. They sarcastically suggested that if killing a goat sends it to heaven, why not kill a relative to send them there?
They also claimed that Vedic mantras are meaningless and contain contradictions.
Due to their fundamental opposition to the Vedas, a person following Sanatana Dharma (often loosely termed 'Hindu') cannot identify as a Charvaka. The sources explicitly state that adopting Charvaka principles could lead to a very unethical way of living, which is detrimental to both individuals and society.
Who Was Charvaka? Puranic Origins
While the historical existence of a single person named Charvaka is debated, the philosophy is famously linked to Brihaspati, the guru of the Devas (gods). A fascinating narrative from the Padma Purana explains this connection:
During a prolonged war between the Devas and Asuras, the Devas gained dominance, and the Asuras sought help from their guru, Shukracharya.
Shukracharya embarked on a long penance to Lord Shiva, leaving the Asuras vulnerable.
During his absence, Indra (leader of Devas) asked Brihaspati to disguise himself as Shukracharya and infiltrate the Asuras' camp.
Brihaspati, in disguise, then preached Charvaka-mata to the Asuras, advising them to abandon all Vedic rituals. His intention was to weaken them by diverting them from the practices that granted them strength.
When the real Shukracharya returned, the Asuras, having been influenced by the disguised Brihaspati for so long, refused to recognize him. The enraged real Shukracharya then cursed his own disciples, leading to their defeat.
Thus, Brihaspati is considered the "founder" of Charvaka-mata in this Puranic context, using it as a deceptive tactic.
Later, Vishnu himself is said to have created Maya Moha, who further propagated Nastika philosophies (like Jainism and Buddhism in some puranic versions) to divert the Asuras from Vedic paths. This is why Charvaka, Jina, and Bodha are often grouped together in puranic discussions.
There's also a mention of a Rakshasa (demon) named Charvaka in the Mahabharata, a friend of Duryodhana, who spoke like a Charvaka and was subsequently burned by angered Brahmins. Some scholars believe this historical figure might be the namesake, but this view is not universally accepted.
The Jabali Connection: A Brief Detour
In the Ramayana, there's an instance where Rishi Jabali speaks like a Nastika to convince Rama to return to Ayodhya. Rama initially reacts with anger, even comparing a Nastika to a thief. However, Jabali clarifies that he was merely using Nastika arguments to persuade Rama, not because he genuinely held those views. This is further affirmed by Vasishta, another respected Rishi. This serves as a reminder that using arguments from a philosophy doesn't mean one subscribes to it.
Why Not Charvaka? An Astika Perspective
From an Astika viewpoint, the Charvaka philosophy has significant drawbacks:
It advocates a selfish lifestyle with no moral boundaries beyond avoiding immediate negative consequences.
If everyone were to adopt Charvaka, the world would devolve into a chaotic and unpleasant place.
The arguments Charvakas put forth against the Vedas have been refuted by other philosophical schools. For instance, the ability of Devas to receive offerings through fire is explained by proper ritual procedures, not just direct physical transfer.
While this discussion aims to provide a clear understanding of Charvaka philosophy and its arguments, it is not intended to promote or attract anyone to it. Our ultimate goal in this series is to explore various Indian Darshanas to gain a comprehensive understanding of their views, eventually culminating in a deeper appreciation for Visishtadvaita Siddhanta.